The Sovereignty of God According to Paul the Apostle and Justin the Martyr

      Compare Paul's concept of God's sovereignty in Romans 9:1-23 with Justin's concept of God's sovereignty in Chapter XLIII: RESPONSIBILITY ASSERTED

      Justin's concept of God's sovereignty in Chapter 43 of his First Apology differs greatly from Paul's Biblical account. Justin takes a very un-Biblical approach in claiming that man has the ability to choose whether to be good or evil, which directly contradicts what Paul writes in Roman 9:17-18, "'For this very purpose I have raised you up, that I may show My power in you, and that My name may be declared in all the earth.' Therefore He has mercy on whom He wills, and whom He wills He hardens." The Bible declares that, because all men exist to proclaim God's glory, God has supreme sovereignty over all of them. Justin the Martyr says the opposite, claiming that man has the ability to reject God's authority in this area of his life – meaning God is not sovereign at all, if this were the case. In essence, Justin paints a picture of a God who is not sovereign over His own creation, and Paul writes of God as He Himself declares Him to be.

Cicero's Rhetoric

      How important was the rhetorical context of Cicero's orations: his listeners' fear of Catiline's conspiracy and army?

      Cicero's rhetoric was his major advantage in his case against Catiline. Cicero, who was equipped with very little real proof, had to rely on his skill with words and rhetoric in order to ensure the success of his case against Catiline. Cicero was a master of rhetoric. With it he was able to stir the emotions of his listeners to fear Catiline and his army; without it he would not have got very far in trying to put a stop to Catiline's conspiracy. The rhetorical context of Cicero's orations was possibly the most important and effective factor in his arguments against Catiline.

Cicero's Writings Against Catiline

      If you had been Catiline, what would you have said to undermine Cicero's case?

      Cicero's case against Catiline was primarily based on intimidation. Cicero employed many tactics to discredit Catiline which involved descriptions of Catiline's despicable behavior, loose morals, and selfish ideals in order to paint a picture of Catiline that was unfavorable at best and loathsome at worst. Cicero approached the matter this way because, in his case, he presents very little real proof. What he was trying to accomplish was the destruction of Catiline's character and reputation, because he knew that his concrete evidence was very slim. If I had been Catiline, I would have attempted to undermine Cicero's case by demanding he back up his accusations with proof before the Senate, which of course Cicero would have been unable to do. If I could prove by Cicero's lack of proof that I was innocent of his accusations, then Cicero's case would have very little real weight.

Ethical Cause and Effect in Both Works and Days and The Eumenides

      How does the view of ethical cause and effect in history in Works and Days compare with the furies' view in The Eumenides?

      Works and Days by Hesiod provides an interesting comparison to Aeschylus' Eumenides, since both works of literature deal with many of the same themes of revenge, honesty, hard work, and ethics. Works and Days attempts to teach the reader what actions will lead to a good life (as well as what actions will lead to a poor and unhappy life). Eumenides, although it uses much the same concept, is more focused and candid in its warnings of a bad life rather than promises of a good.

      In Works and Days, Hesiod admits that it is morally permissible to take revenge on someone if they have wronged you. Eumenides agrees with this idea, as two major characters of the play use revenge to get back at those who have wronged them. Clytemnestra's husband sacrifices their daughter, so in revenge Clytemnestra commits adultery with another man and later kills her husband. Her son Orestes, once he finds out what his mother has done, takes revenge on her by killing her. Eumenides deals with which revenge was correct. According to the Furies, who play a major part in Eumenides, it was Clytemnestra's, and they spend most of the play trying to get Orestes punished for his revenge against his mother.

      Honesty is dealt with in both Works and Days and Eumenides. Hesiod believes that being honest is one of the actions that will result in a good and happy life. Morally speaking, being honest is the right thing to do under any circumstance, and this is illustrated in Eumenides when Orestes decides to be honest in the face of the Furies' condemnation about why he killed his mother.

     Hard work is also an important part of both pieces of literature. Hesiod points out, through many different examples, how hard work will pay off and lead to a good and happy life. Hard work, he says, will make one comfortable at the very least and may even lead to wealth, if applied correctly. He gives ideas on how to apply the principles of hard work to one's life, explaining in detail how to make the most of one's resources and labor. Hard work certainly paid off for the Furies in Eumenides. Although their primary goal – which was to have Orestes punished for the murder of his mother – was not achieved, they succeeded in becoming revered gods of Athens, an outcome which the city had offered to them as a sort of compromise.

      Works and Days and The Eumenides are filled with many such similarities and contrasts. They are fascinating complements to each other, and of course, they are outstanding works of literature in their own right.

The View of the Biblical Materials on the Role of Ethics in the Development of History

     Biblical ethics have played a large part in the history of man since the very beginning of time, starting with God's first commands to Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, and then influencing other major events like the receiving of the Ten Commandments by Moses, which eventually turned into the Mosaic Law of the Hebrews. But even cultures and peoples who do not recognize God as their sovereign, the ethics outlined in the Bible have contributed heavily to the way they view ethics and morality in general. Most cultures, for instance, have laws against stealing and killing, both of which are things that God has commanded us not to do in the Ten Commandments. Those who do not follow God will often still give food to the hungry or homes to the poor, and kindness in some degree to those worse off than yourself is a distinctly human trait that you would expect to find in most people that you meet. All of this has been influenced by biblical ethics; whether most people realize it or not, the Bible and God's Word have played an important part in the development of the world since the very beginning of time.

The Relationship Between Ethics and Sanctions in Proverbs 1-7

      Proverbs Chapter 1 verses 8-9 say, "My son, hear the instruction of thy father, and forsake not the law of thy mother: For they shall be an ornament of grace unto thy head, and chains about thy neck." As far as sanctions go in the Old Testament, this one is clearly positive, with such language as "an ornament of grace unto thy head and chains about thy neck" illustrating just how positive it is. Ornaments worn on the head and chains around the neck were symbols of status and wealth in the Old Testament world; to be adorned with such jewelry told the world that you were somebody important or well-off. In this proverb, a son (which could be applied to any child) is admonished to listen and abide by his parents' instructions, because if he did then good things would befall him, as opposed to evil ones. An ornament for the head and chains for the neck: positive sanctions that relate directly to the biblical ethics of heeding one's parents.

      Proverbs Chapter 6 verses 9-11 say, "How long wilt thou sleep, O sluggard? when wilt thou arise out of thy sleep? Yet a little sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of the hands to sleep: So shall thy poverty come as one that travelleth, and thy want as an armed man." This is an example of a negative sanction – misfortune befalling those who do not hold to the ethics of God's Word. The person illustrated in this proverb is depicted as sleeping – specifically a person too lazy to work, too lazy to pick himself up out of his rest and do as he ought. Poverty sneaks up on him when he does not expected, and our lazy man becomes a poor one as well. This is a negative sanctions: evil happening to those who do not pay heed to the ethics of the Old Testament.

Reasons Given in the Psalms For Long-Term Optimism

      The Psalms offer many reasons for long term optimism – optimism for the future, even if everything around you now seems dark and your fortune looks grim. God's promises in the Psalms are our reason for long-term optimism. In the Book of Psalms, David (and many other psalmists) sing praises to God in spite of their difficulties, because they have reason to put their faith in Him and they rejoice at his promises to them. The greatest of God's promises is the guarantee of life after death, an eternity in heaven with Him. This is a great promise indeed, but it will only come to pass after our deaths, which must inspire us to keep our faith and hope in Him until then.

      A fantastic example of the long-term optimist is David, who time and time again came up against his enemies, both enemies of the flesh and enemies of his own sin, and time and time again he finished all of these trials with a song of praise to God, in whom he had put his faith and trust. David relied upon God to bear him through his hardest times, and God did not abandon his servant. God never abandons those who put their faith and hope in Him, and this is why we are to have long-term optimism.

The Significance of Historical Sanctions in the Psalms

Historical sanctions are a very important concept in the Psalms. They act as both a promise and an assurance – the assurance that God will punish evildoers, and spare no mercy for the wicked. A concept like that must have had great significance in the days of the Jews in Israel, and that still holds true today. The sanctions are a promise by God to keep His people safe from those who would do evil to them. For those who know that they have a future life in heaven with God, this ought to be very comforting indeed! For those who do not have that assurance, the sanctions can serve as a motivator – a guarantee of what will happen to them if they continue to practice wickedness.

           Historical sanctions are rife within the Psalms. David, whom many recognize as the primary Psalmist, constantly cried out to God for help against His enemies who wish to do His servant David harm. David relied utterly on God's protection under His sanctions, and God answered David's prayers for help and protection. God always answers the prayers of those who have faith in Him, and His sanctions are a promise for those He has chosen to be His people.

The Importance of Ethics and God's Sanctions During Noah's Flood

      Ethics and the sanctions of God play a major role throughout the entire Bible, and one place where this is shown particularly clearly is in the story of Noah and the Flood. The Bible teaches that mankind had fallen into a state of total depravity, and that in all the world there was literally only one man and his family who found favor in God's sight – Noah. God's justice could not allow the majority of sinful man to go unpunished, and yet in His mercy He decided to let one man and his family be saved. The Flood was God's way of wiping clean the slate, so to speak – and yet, afterward He promised to Noah that He would never again destroy all the world as He had just done. Sin was destroyed for the most part, and yet there was mercy, too. God's attitude towards sin is one of absolute intolerance, and so when He is depicted showing mercy in the Bible, He appears more holy and glorious because of it. Noah recognized this when the Flood was over that God had saved him and his family because of His righteousness, not the other way around. The reason ethics and God's sanctions play such an important part in the Bible's story of man is because man is flawed and God is perfect, and it is only through God's grace and mercy that man is saved – like Noah and the Flood.

The Elements of Hierarchy In the Garden of Eden

      Genesis chapters 1-3 deal with many things, not least of which are the elements of hierarchy in the early days of Creation. When God created man, He gave him a task to do – naming all of the animals – and when he had finished, God gave him a helper "meet" or fit for him: the woman, whom God created out of the man's rib. In the original perfect Creation, Adam and Eve worked together tending to the Garden of Eden and following God's commands. Prior to the Fall, this was a perfect arrangement – the man as the head of the family, the woman as his fit and equal helper, and both man and woman glorifying God in their work.

      After the Fall, this arrangement changed. When God decreed the punishments of Adam, Eve and the serpent, the roles were fundamentally the same and yet were no longer perfect. Adam was still head of his family, but his relationship to God had been corrupted because of his sin, as had his relationship to his wife. Eve was decreed that "your desire shall be to your husband, and he shall rule over you" (Genesis 3:16) – her position in the family was the same, but corrupted; likewise her own relationship to God was no longer as pure as it had been. Finally the serpent, who had tempted Adam and Eve to sin, was cursed for all his days. God said, "I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your seed and her seed; he will bruise your head, and you will bruise his heel." (Genesis 3:15) The serpent's position was to be one of utter destruction, below Adam and Eve, and he would eventually be destroyed by the "seed" of Eve – Jesus Christ.